Volume 12 Issue 4
Jul.  2021
Turn off MathJax
Article Contents
WU Wenming, CHEN Jie, BAI Chunmei, YIHEBALI Chi, DU Yiqi, FENG Shiting, HUO Li, JIANG Yuxin, LI Jingnan, LOU Wenhui, LUO Jie, SHAO Chenghao, SHEN Lin, WANG Feng, WANG Liwei, WANG Ou, WANG Yu, WU Huanwen, XING Xiaoping, XU Jianming, XUE Huadan, XUE Ling, YANG Yang, YU Xianjun, YUAN Chunhui, ZHAO Hong, ZHU Xiongzeng, ZHAO Yupei, Chinese Pancreatic Surgery Association, Chinese Society of Surgery, Chinese Medical Association. The Chinese Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms (2020)[J]. Medical Journal of Peking Union Medical College Hospital, 2021, 12(4): 460-480. doi: 10.12290/xhyxzz.2021-0481
Citation: WU Wenming, CHEN Jie, BAI Chunmei, YIHEBALI Chi, DU Yiqi, FENG Shiting, HUO Li, JIANG Yuxin, LI Jingnan, LOU Wenhui, LUO Jie, SHAO Chenghao, SHEN Lin, WANG Feng, WANG Liwei, WANG Ou, WANG Yu, WU Huanwen, XING Xiaoping, XU Jianming, XUE Huadan, XUE Ling, YANG Yang, YU Xianjun, YUAN Chunhui, ZHAO Hong, ZHU Xiongzeng, ZHAO Yupei, Chinese Pancreatic Surgery Association, Chinese Society of Surgery, Chinese Medical Association. The Chinese Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms (2020)[J]. Medical Journal of Peking Union Medical College Hospital, 2021, 12(4): 460-480. doi: 10.12290/xhyxzz.2021-0481

The Chinese Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms (2020)

doi: 10.12290/xhyxzz.2021-0481
Funds:

CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences 2017-I2M-1-001

More Information
  • Corresponding author: ZHAO Yupei  Tel: 86-10-69155810, E-mail: zhao8028@263.net
  • Received Date: 2021-06-18
  • Accepted Date: 2021-06-18
  • Available Online: 2021-06-21
  • Publish Date: 2021-07-30
  • Pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (pNENs) are highly heterogeneous, and the management of pNENs patients can be intractable. To address this challenge, an expert committee was established on behalf of the Chinese Pancreatic Surgery Association, Chinese Society of Surgery, Chinese Medical Association, which consisted of surgical oncologists, gastroenterologists, medical oncologists, endocrinologists, radiologists, pathologists, and nuclear medicine specialists. By reviewing the important issues regarding the diagnosis and treatment of pNENs, the committee concluded evidence-based statements and recommendations in this article, in order to further improve the management of pNENs patients in China.
  • loading
  • [1] WHO Classification of Tumours. Digestive System Tumours[M]. 5th ed. World Health Organization Press, 2019.
    [2] Hallet J, Law CH, Cukier M, et al. Exploring the rising incidence of neuroendocrine tumors: a population-based analysis of epidemiology, metastatic presentation, and outcomes[J]. Cancer, 2015, 121: 589-597. doi:  10.1002/cncr.29099
    [3] Dasari A, Shen C, Halperin D, et al. Trends in the Incidence, Prevalence, and Survival Outcomes in Patients With Neuroendocrine Tumors in the United States[J]. JAMA Oncol, 2017, 3: 1335-1342. doi:  10.1001/jamaoncol.2017.0589
    [4] Fan JH, Zhang YQ, Shi SS, et al. A nation-wide retrospective epidemiological study of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms in china[J]. Oncotarget, 2017, 8: 71699-71708. doi:  10.18632/oncotarget.17599
    [5] Ito T, Igarashi H, Nakamura K, et al. Epidemiological trends of pancreatic and gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors in Japan: a nationwide survey analysis[J]. J Gastroenterol, 2015, 50: 58-64. doi:  10.1007/s00535-014-0934-2
    [6] Wu W, Jin G, Li H, et al. The current surgical treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms in China: a national wide cross-sectional study[J]. J Pancreatol, 2019, 2: 35-42. doi:  10.1097/JP9.0000000000000019
    [7] Amin MB, Edge, S, Greene F, et al. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual[M]. 8th ed. New York: Springer, 2017.
    [8] Luo G, Javed A, Strosberg JR, et al. Modified Staging Classification for Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors on the Basis of the American Joint Committee on Cancer and European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society Systems[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2017, 35: 274-280. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/27646952
    [9] Crona J, Norlén O, Antonodimitrakis P, et al. Multiple and Secondary Hormone Secretion in Patients With Metastatic Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumours[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2016, 101: 445-452. doi:  10.1210/jc.2015-2436
    [10] Grant CS. Insulinoma[J]. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol, 2005, 19: 783-798. doi:  10.1016/j.bpg.2005.05.008
    [11] Metz DC, Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors[J]. Gastroenterology, 2008, 135: 1469-1492. doi:  10.1053/j.gastro.2008.05.047
    [12] Gao H, Wang W, Xu H, et al. Distinct clinicopathological and prognostic features of insulinoma with synchronous distant metastasis[J]. Pancreatology, 2019, 19: 472-477. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2019.02.011
    [13] Whipple AO, Frantz VK. Adenoma of lslet cells with hyperinsulinism: a review[J]. Ann Surg, 1935, 101: 1299-1335. doi:  10.1097/00000658-193506000-00001
    [14] Alexakis N, Connor S, Ghaneh P, et al. Hereditary pancreatic endocrine tumours[J]. Pancreatology, 2004, 4: 417-435. http://www.karger.com/article/pdf/79616
    [15] Jensen RT, Niederle B, Mitry E, et al. Gastrinoma (duodenal and pancreatic)[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2006, 84: 173-182. doi:  10.1159/000098009
    [16] Gibril F, Schumann M, Pace A, et al. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: a prospective study of 107 cases and comparison with 1009 cases from the literature[J]. Medicine(Baltimore), 2004, 83: 43-83.
    [17] Luo G, Liu Z, Guo M, et al. A comprehensive comparison of clinicopathologic and imaging features of incidental/symptomatic non-functioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: A retrospective study of a single center[J]. Pancreatology, 2015, 15: 519-524. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2015.08.009
    [18] Jensen RT, Berna MJ, Bingham DB, et al. Inherited pancreatic endocrine tumor syndromes: advances in molecular pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, and controversies[J]. Cancer, 2008, 113: 1807-1843. doi:  10.1002/cncr.23648
    [19] Thakker RV. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1[J]. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am, 2000, 29: 541-567. doi:  10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70150-X
    [20] Falconi M, Eriksson B, Kaltsas G, et al. ENETS Cons-ensus Guidelines Update for the Management of Patients with Functional Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors and Non-Functional Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2016, 103: 153-171. doi:  10.1159/000443171
    [21] Fendrich V, Waldmann J, Bartsch DK, et al. Surgical management of pancreatic endocrine tumors[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol, 2009, 6: 419-428. doi:  10.1038/nrclinonc.2009.82
    [22] Yang X, Yang Y, Li Z, et al. Diagnostic value of circulating chromogranin a for neuroendocrine tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. PLoS One, 2015, 10: e0124884. doi:  10.1371/journal.pone.0124884
    [23] Han X, Zhang C, Tang M, et al. The value of serum chromogranin A as a predictor of tumor burden, therapeutic response, and nomogram-based survival in well-moderate nonfunctional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors with liver metastases[J]. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2015, 27: 527-535. doi:  10.1097/MEG.0000000000000332
    [24] Panzuto F, Severi C, Cannizzaro R, et al. Utility of combined use of plasma levels of chromogranin A and pancreatic polypeptide in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal and pancreatic endocrine tumors[J]. J Endocrinol Invest, 2004, 27: 6-11. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/8648427_Panzuto_F_Severi_C_Cannizzaro_R_et_al_Utility_of_combined_use_of_plasma_levels_of_chromogranin_A_and_pancreatic_polypeptide_in_the_diagnosis_of_gastrointestinal_and_pancreatic_endocrine_tumors
    [25] Baudin E, Bidart JM, Bachelot A, et al. Impact of chromogranin A measurement in the work-up of neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Ann Oncol, 2001, 12 Suppl 2: S79-S82. http://www.tandfonline.com/servlet/linkout?suffix=CIT0003&dbid=8&doi=10.1080%2F2331205X.2018.1484602&key=11762357
    [26] Di Giacinto P, Rota F, Rizza L, et al. Chromogranin A: From Laboratory to Clinical Aspects of Patients with Neuroendocrine Tumors[J]. Int J Endocrinol, 2018, 2018: 8126087. http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC6051263/
    [27] Cimitan M, Buonadonna A, Cannizzaro R, et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy versus chromogranin A assay in the management of patients with neuroendocrine tumors of different types: clinical role[J]. Ann Oncol, 2003, 14: 1135-1141. doi:  10.1093/annonc/mdg279
    [28] Qiao XW, Qiu L, Chen YJ, et al. Chromogranin A is a reliable serum diagnostic biomarker for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors but not for insulinomas[J]. BMC Endocr Disord, 2014, 14: 64. doi:  10.1186/1472-6823-14-64
    [29] Korse CM, Taal BG, Vincent A, et al. Choice of tumour markers in patients with neuroendocrine tumours is dependent on the histological grade. A marker study of Chromogranin A, Neuron specific enolase, Progastrin-releasing peptide and cytokeratin fragments[J]. Eur J Cancer, 2012, 48: 662-671. doi:  10.1016/j.ejca.2011.08.012
    [30] Yao JC, Pavel M, Phan AT, et al. Chromogranin A and neuron-specific enolase as prognostic markers in patients with advanced pNET treated with everolimus[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2011, 96: 3741-3749. doi:  10.1210/jc.2011-0666
    [31] Chen L, Zhang Y, Lin Y, et al. The role of elevated serum procalcitonin in neuroendocrine neoplasms of digestive system[J]. Clin Biochem, 2017, 50: 982-987. doi:  10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2017.06.010
    [32] Tao M, Yuan C, Xiu D, et al. Analysis of risk factors affecting the prognosis of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2014, 127: 2924-2928. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25131229
    [33] Öberg K, Califano A, Strosberg JR, et al. A meta-analysis of the accuracy of a neuroendocrine tumor mRNA genomic biomarker (NETest) in blood[J]. Ann Oncol, 2020, 31: 202-212. https://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTOTAL-ZSFX201719005.htm
    [34] Cryer PE, Axelrod L, Grossman AB, et al. Evaluation and management of adult hypoglycemic disorders: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2009, 94: 709-728. doi:  10.1210/jc.2008-1410
    [35] Berna MJ, Hoffmann KM, Serrano J, et al. Serum gastrin in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: I. Prospective study of fasting serum gastrin in 309 patients from the National Institutes of Health and comparison with 2229 cases from the literature[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2006, 85: 295-330. doi:  10.1097/01.md.0000236956.74128.76
    [36] Roy PK, Venzon DJ, Feigenbaum KM, et al. Gastric secretion in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Correlation with clinical expression, tumor extent and role in diagnosis--a prospective NIH study of 235 patients and a review of 984 cases in the literature[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2001, 80: 189-222. doi:  10.1097/00005792-200105000-00005
    [37] Berna MJ, Hoffmann KM, Long SH, et al. Serum gastrin in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: Ⅱ. Prospective study of gastrin provocative testing in 293 patients from the National Institutes of Health and comparison with 537 cases from the literature. evaluation of diagnostic criteria, proposal of new criteria, and correlations with clinical and tumoral features[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2006, 85: 331-364. doi:  10.1097/MD.0b013e31802b518c
    [38] Corleto VD, Annibale B, Gibril F, et al. Does the widespread use of proton pump inhibitors mask, complicate and/or delay the diagnosis of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome?[J]. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2001, 15: 1555-1561. doi:  10.1046/j.1365-2036.2001.01085.x
    [39] Sundin A, Arnold R, Baudin E, et al. ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the Standards of Care in Neuroendocrine Tumors: Radiological, Nuclear Medicine & Hybrid Imaging[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2017, 105: 212-244. doi:  10.1159/000471879
    [40] Luo Y, Chen J, Huang K, et al. Early evaluation of sunitinib for the treatment of advanced gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms via CT imaging: RECIST 1.1 or Choi Criteria?[J]. BMC Cancer, 2017, 17: 154. doi:  10.1186/s12885-017-3150-7
    [41] Luo Y, Dong Z, Chen J, et al. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: correlation between MSCT features and pathological classification[J]. Eur Radiol, 2014, 24: 2945-2952. doi:  10.1007/s00330-014-3317-4
    [42] Luo Y, Chen X, Chen J, et al. Preoperative Prediction of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms Grading Based on Enhanced Computed Tomography Imaging: Validation of Deep Learning with a Convolutional Neural Network[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2020, 110: 338-350. doi:  10.1159/000503291
    [43] Liu Y, Chen W, Cui W, et al. Quantitative Pretreatment CT Parameters as Predictors of Tumor Response of Neuroendocrine Tumor Liver Metastasis to Transcatheter Arterial Bland Embolization[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2020, 110: 697-704. doi:  10.1159/000504257
    [44] Liang W, Yang P, Huang R, et al. A Combined Nomo-gram Model to Preoperatively Predict Histologic Grade in Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors[J]. Clin Cancer Res, 2019, 25: 584-594. doi:  10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-18-1305
    [45] Zhu L, Wu WM, Xue HD, et al. Sporadic insulinomas on volume perfusion CT: dynamic enhancement patterns and timing of optimal tumour-parenchyma contrast[J]. Eur Radiol, 2017, 27: 3491-3498. doi:  10.1007/s00330-016-4709-4
    [46] Zhu L, Xue HD, Sun H, et al. Isoattenuating insulinomas at biphasic contrast-enhanced CT: frequency, clinicopathologic features and perfusion characteristics[J]. Eur Radiol, 2016, 26: 3697-3705. doi:  10.1007/s00330-016-4216-7
    [47] Zhu L, Xue HD, Sun H, et al. Insulinoma detection with MDCT: is there a role for whole-pancreas perfusion?[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2017, 208: 306-314. doi:  10.2214/AJR.16.16351
    [48] Li J, Chen XY, Xu K, et al. Detection of insulinoma: one-stop pancreatic perfusion CT with calculated mean temporal images can replace the combination of bi-phasic plus perfusion scan[J]. Eur Radiol, 2020, 30: 4164-4174. doi:  10.1007/s00330-020-06657-4
    [49] d'Assignies G, Assignies G, Couvelard A, et al. Pancreatic endocrine tumors: tumor blood flow assessed with perfusion CT reflects angiogenesis and correlates with prognostic factors[J]. Radiology, 2009, 250: 407-416. doi:  10.1148/radiol.2501080291
    [50] Zhu L, Xue H, Sun Z, et al. Prospective comparison of biphasic contrast-enhanced CT, volume perfusion CT, and 3 Tesla MRI with diffusion-weighted imaging for insulinoma detection[J]. J Magn Reson Imaging, 2017, 46: 1648-1655. doi:  10.1002/jmri.25709
    [51] He M, Xu J, Sun Z, et al. Prospective Comparison of Reduced Field-of-View (rFOV) and Full FOV (fFOV) Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI) in the Assessment of Insulinoma: Image Quality and Lesion Detection[J]. Acad Radiol, 2020, 27: 1572-1579. doi:  10.1016/j.acra.2019.11.019
    [52] Pamuklar E, Semelka RC. MR imaging of the pancreas[J]. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am, 2005, 13: 313-330. doi:  10.1016/j.mric.2005.03.012
    [53] Sun H, Zhou J, Liu K, et al. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: MR imaging features preoperatively predict lymph node metastasis[J]. Abdom Radiol (NY), 2019, 44: 1000-1009. doi:  10.1007/s00261-018-1863-y
    [54] Tirumani SH, Jagannathan JP, Braschi-Amirfarzan M, et al. Value of hepatocellular phase imaging after intravenous gadoxetate disodium for assessing hepatic metastases from gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: comparison with other MRI pulse sequences and with extracellular agent[J]. Abdom Radiol (NY), 2018, 43: 2329-2339. doi:  10.1007/s00261-018-1496-1
    [55] Chiti A, Fanti S, Savelli G, et al. Comparison of somatostatin receptor imaging, computed tomography and ultrasound in the clinical management of neuroendocrine gastro-entero-pancreatic tumours[J]. Eur J Nucl Med, 1998, 25: 1396-1403. doi:  10.1007/s002590050314
    [56] Dietrich CF, Jenssen C. Modern ultrasound imaging of pancreatic tumors[J]. Ultrasonography, 2020, 39: 105-113. doi:  10.14366/usg.19039
    [57] Wu W, Chen MH, Yin SS, et al. The role of contrast-enhanced sonography of focal liver lesions before percutaneous biopsy[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2006, 187: 752-761. doi:  10.2214/AJR.05.0535
    [58] Liu Y, Shi S, Hua J, et al. Differentiation of solid-pseudopapillary tumors of the pancreas from pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors by using endoscopic ultrasound[J]. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol, 2020, 44: 947-953. doi:  10.1016/j.clinre.2020.02.002
    [59] Di Leo M, Poliani L, Rahal D, et al. Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumours: The Role of Endoscopic Ultrasound Biopsy in Diagnosis and Grading Based on the WHO 2017 Classification[J]. Dig Dis, 2019, 37: 325-333. doi:  10.1159/000499172
    [60] Choi JH, Park DH, Kim MH, et al. Outcomes after endoscopic ultrasound-guided ethanol-lipiodol ablation of small pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Dig Endosc, 2018, 30: 652-658. doi:  10.1111/den.13058
    [61] He G, Wang J, Chen B, et al. Feasibility of endoscopic submucosal dissection for upper gastrointestinal submucosal tumors treatment and value of endoscopic ultrasonography in pre-operation assess and post-operation follow-up: a prospective study of 224 cases in a single medical center[J]. Surg Endosc, 2016, 30: 4206-4213. doi:  10.1007/s00464-015-4729-1
    [62] Li W, An L, Liu R, et al. Laparoscopic ultrasound enhances diagnosis and localization of insulinoma in pancreatic head and neck for laparoscopic surgery with satisfactory postsurgical outcomes[J]. Ultrasound Med Biol, 2011, 37: 1017-1023. doi:  10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2011.04.003
    [63] Ruf J, Heuck F, Schiefer J, et al. Impact of Multiphase 68Ga-DOTATOC-PET/CT on therapy management in patients with neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2010, 91: 101-109. doi:  10.1159/000265561
    [64] Luo Y, Pan Q, Yao S, et al. Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor PET/CT with 68Ga-NOTA-Exendin-4 for Detecting Localized Insulinoma: A Prospective Cohort Study[J]. J Nucl Med, 2016, 57: 715-720. doi:  10.2967/jnumed.115.167445
    [65] Binderup T, Knigge U, Loft A, et al. Functional imaging of neuroendocrine tumors: a head-to-head comparison of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy, 123I-MIBG scintigraphy, and 18F-FDG PET[J]. J Nucl Med, 2010, 51: 704-712. doi:  10.2967/jnumed.109.069765
    [66] Rinzivillo M, Partelli S, Prosperi D, et al. Clinical usefulness of (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the diagnostic algorithm of advanced entero-pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms[J]. Oncologist, 2018, 23: 186-192. doi:  10.1634/theoncologist.2017-0278
    [67] Grillo F, Albertelli M, Brisigotti MP, et al. Grade incre-ases in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor metas-tases compared to the primary tumor[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2016, 103: 452-459. doi:  10.1159/000439434
    [68] Botling J, Lamarca A, Bajic D, et al. Longitudinal increase in Ki67 and high-grade transformation in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours(PNETs)[J]. Ann Oncol, 2019, 30: v564-v573. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/336195649_1386PDLongitudinal_increase_in_Ki67_and_high-grade_transformation_in_pancreatic_neuroendocrine_tumours_PNETs
    [69] Rindi G, Bordi C, La Rosa S, et al. Gastroenteropan-creatic (neuro)endocrine neoplasms: the histology report[J]. Dig Liver Dis, 2011, 43 Suppl 4: S356-S360. doi:  10.1016/S1590-8658(11)60591-4
    [70] Schmitt AM, Riniker F, Anlauf M, et al. Islet 1 (Isl1) expression is a reliable marker for pancreatic endocrine tumors and their metastases[J]. Am J Surg Pathol, 2008, 32: 420-425. doi:  10.1097/PAS.0b013e318158a397
    [71] Sangoi AR, Ohgami RS, Pai RK, et al. PAX8 expression reliably distinguishes pancreatic well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors from ileal and pulmonary well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors and pancreatic acinar cell carcinoma[J]. Mod Pathol, 2011, 24: 412-424. doi:  10.1038/modpathol.2010.176
    [72] Al-Hawary MM, Francis IR, Chari ST, et al. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma radiology reporting template: consensus statement of the society of abdominal radiology and the american pancreatic association[J]. Gastroenterology, 2014, 146: 291-304. e1. doi:  10.1053/j.gastro.2013.11.004
    [73] Goode PN, Farndon JR, Anderson J, et al. Diazoxide in the management of patients with insulinoma[J]. World J Surg, 1986, 10: 586-592. doi:  10.1007/BF01655532
    [74] Ito T, Igarashi H, Uehara H, et al. Pharmacotherapy of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome[J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2013, 14: 307-321. doi:  10.1517/14656566.2013.767332
    [75] Oberg KE, Reubi JC, Kwekkeboom DJ, et al. Role of somatostatins in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor development and therapy[J]. Gastroenterology, 2010, 139: 742-753, 753. e1. doi:  10.1053/j.gastro.2010.07.002
    [76] Eldor R, Glaser B, Fraenkel M, et al. Glucagonoma and the glucagonoma syndrome - cumulative experience with an elusive endocrine tumour[J]. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 2011, 74: 593-598. doi:  10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.03967.x
    [77] Graham GW, Unger BP, Coursin DB. Perioperative management of selected endocrine disorders[J]. Int Anesthesiol Clin, 2000, 38: 31-67. doi:  10.1097/00004311-200010000-00004
    [78] Chua TC, Yang TX, Gill AJ, et al. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Enucleation Versus Standardized Resection for Small Pancreatic Lesions[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2016, 23: 592-599. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/26307231
    [79] Tian F, Hong XF, Wu WM, et al. Propensity score-matched analysis of robotic versus open surgical enucleation for small pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours[J]. Br J Surg, 2016, 103: 1358-1364. doi:  10.1002/bjs.10220
    [80] Partelli S, Cirocchi R, Crippa S, et al. Systematic review of active surveillance versus surgical management of asymptomatic small non-functioning pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms[J]. Br J Surg, 2017, 104: 34-41. doi:  10.1002/bjs.10451
    [81] Lee LC, Grant CS, Salomao DR, et al. Small, nonfunctioning, asymptomatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs): role for nonoperative management[J]. Surgery, 2012, 152: 965-974. doi:  10.1016/j.surg.2012.08.038
    [82] Lombardi M, De Lio N, Funel N, et al. Prognostic factors for pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (pNET) and the risk of small non-functioning pNET[J]. J Endocrinol Invest, 2015, 38: 605-613. doi:  10.1007/s40618-014-0219-x
    [83] Liu Y, Ye S, Zhu Y, et al. Impact of tumour size on metastasis and survival in patients with pancreatic neuroen-docrine tumours (PNETs): A population based study[J]. J Cancer, 2019, 10: 6349-6357. doi:  10.7150/jca.27779
    [84] Mao WL, Han X, Lyu Y, et al. Propensity score-matched analysis of clinical outcome after enucleation versus regular pancreatectomy in patients with small non-functional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Pancreatology, 2020, 20: 169-176. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2019.12.007
    [85] Mao R, Zhao H, Li K, et al. Outcomes of Lymph Node Dissection for Non-metastatic Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors: A Propensity Score-Weighted Analysis of the National Cancer Database[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2019, 26: 2722-2729. doi:  10.1245/s10434-019-07506-5
    [86] Sallinen V, Haglund C, Seppänen H. Outcomes of resected nonfunctional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: Do size and symptoms matter?[J]. Surgery, 2015, 158: 1556-1563. doi:  10.1016/j.surg.2015.04.035
    [87] Kuo EJ, Salem RR. Population-level analysis of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors 2 cm or less in size[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2013, 20: 2815-2821. doi:  10.1245/s10434-013-3005-7
    [88] Curran T, Pockaj BA, Gray RJ, et al. Importance of lymph node involvement in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: impact on survival and implications for surgical resection[J]. J Gastrointest Surg, 2015, 19: 152-160; discussion 160. doi:  10.1007/s11605-014-2624-z
    [89] Hashim YM, Trinkaus KM, Linehan DC, et al. Regional lymphadenectomy is indicated in the surgical treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs)[J]. Ann Surg, 2014, 259: 197-203. doi:  10.1097/SLA.0000000000000348
    [90] Yang M, Zeng L, Zhang Y, et al. Surgical treatment and clinical outcome of nonfunctional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a 14-year experience from one single center[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2014, 93: e94. doi:  10.1097/MD.0000000000000094
    [91] Wu L, Sahara K, Tsilimigras DI, et al. Therapeutic index of lymphadenectomy among patients with pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: A multi-institutional analysis[J]. J Surg Oncol, 2019, 120: 1080-1086. doi:  10.1002/jso.25689
    [92] Luo G, Jin K, Cheng H, et al. Revised nodal stage for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Pancreatology, 2017, 17: 599-604. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2017.06.003
    [93] Sahara K, Tsilimigras DI, Mehta R, et al. Trends in the Number of Lymph Nodes Evaluated Among Patients with Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors in the United States: A Multi-Institutional and National Database Analysis[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2020, 27: 1203-1212. doi:  10.1245/s10434-019-08120-1
    [94] Zhang XF, Lopez-Aguiar AG, Poultsides G, et al. Minimally invasive versus open distal pancreatectomy for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: An analysis from the U.S. neuroendocrine tumor study group[J]. J Surg Oncol, 2019, 120: 231-240. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31001868
    [95] Chen L, Chen J. Perspective of neo-adjuvant/conversion and adjuvant therapy for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. J Pancreatol, 2019, 2: 91-99. doi:  10.1097/JP9.0000000000000023
    [96] Solorzano CC, Lee JE, Pisters PW, et al. Nonfunctioning islet cell carcinoma of the pancreas: survival results in a contemporary series of 163 patients[J]. Surgery, 2001, 130: 1078-1085. doi:  10.1067/msy.2001.118367
    [97] Sarmiento JM, Heywood G, Rubin J, et al. Surgical treatment of neuroendocrine metastases to the liver: a plea for resection to increase survival[J]. J Am Coll Surg, 2003, 197: 29-37. doi:  10.1016/S1072-7515(03)00230-8
    [98] Kleine M, Schrem H, Vondran FW, et al. Extended surgery for advanced pancreatic endocrine tumours[J]. Br J Surg, 2012, 99: 88-94.
    [99] Lin C, Dai H, Hong X, et al. The prognostic impact of primary tumor resection in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors with synchronous multifocal liver metastases[J]. Pancreatology, 2018, 18: 608-614. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2018.04.014
    [100] Schurr PG, Strate T, Rese K, et al. Aggressive surgery improves long-term survival in neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors: an institutional experience[J]. Ann Surg, 2007, 245: 273-281. doi:  10.1097/01.sla.0000232556.24258.68
    [101] Frilling A, Li J, Malamutmann E, et al. Treatment of liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumours in relation to the extent of hepatic disease[J]. Br J Surg, 2009, 96: 175-184. doi:  10.1002/bjs.6468
    [102] Jin K, Xu J, Chen J, et al. Surgical management for non-functional pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms with synchronous liver metastasis: A consensus from the Chinese Study Group for Neuroendocrine Tumors (CSNET)[J]. Int J Oncol, 2016, 49: 1991-2000. doi:  10.3892/ijo.2016.3711
    [103] De Jong MC, Farnell MB, Sclabas G, et al. Liver-directed therapy for hepatic metastases in patients undergoing pancreaticoduodenectomy: a dual-center analysis[J]. Ann Surg, 2010, 252: 142-148. doi:  10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181dbb7a7
    [104] Bertani E, Fazio N, Botteri E, et al. Resection of the primary pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor in patients with unresectable liver metastases: possible indications for a multimodal approach[J]. Surgery, 2014, 155: 607-614. doi:  10.1016/j.surg.2013.12.024
    [105] Oberg K, Kvols L, Caplin M, et al. Consensus report on the use of somatostatin analogs for the management of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic system[J]. Ann Oncol, 2004, 15: 966-973. doi:  10.1093/annonc/mdh216
    [106] Han X, Lou W. Concomitant pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors in hereditary tumor syndromes: who, when and how to operate?[J]. J Pancreatol, 2019, 2: 48-53. doi:  10.1097/JP9.0000000000000016
    [107] Yates CJ, Newey PJ, Thakker RV. Challenges and controversies in management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours in patients with MEN1[J]. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2015, 3: 895-905. doi:  10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00043-1
    [108] Nell S, Verkooijen HM, Pieterman C, et al. Management of MEN1 Related Nonfunctioning Pancreatic NETs: A Shifting Paradigm: Results From the DutchMEN1 Study Group[J]. Ann Surg, 2018, 267: 1155-1160. doi:  10.1097/SLA.0000000000002183
    [109] Triponez F, Sadowski SM, Pattou F, et al. Long-term Follow-up of MEN1 Patients Who Do Not Have Initial Surgery for Small ≤2 cm Nonfunctioning Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors, an AFCE and GTE Study: Association Franco-phone de Chirurgie Endocrinienne & Groupe d'Etude des Tumeurs Endocrines[J]. Ann Surg, 2018, 268: 158-164. doi:  10.1097/SLA.0000000000002191
    [110] Kim H, Song KB, Hwang DW, et al. Time-trend and recurrence analysis of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Endocr Connect, 2019, 8: 1052-1060. doi:  10.1530/EC-19-0282
    [111] Chouliaras K, Newman NA, Shukla M, et al. Analysis of recurrence after the resection of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. J Surg Oncol, 2018, 118: 416-421. doi:  10.1002/jso.25146
    [112] Gao H, Liu L, Wang W, et al. Novel recurrence risk stratification of resected pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor[J]. Cancer Lett, 2018, 412: 188-193. doi:  10.1016/j.canlet.2017.10.036
    [113] Dong DH, Zhang XF, Lopez-Aguiar AG, et al. Resection of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: defining patterns and time course of recurrence[J]. HPB (Oxford), 2020, 22: 215-223. doi:  10.1016/j.hpb.2019.05.020
    [114] Marchegiani G, Landoni L, Andrianello S, et al. Patterns of Recurrence after Resection for Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors: Who, When, and Where?[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2019, 108: 161-171. doi:  10.1159/000495774
    [115] Ausania F, Senra Del Rio P, Gomez-Bravo MA, et al. Can we predict recurrence in WHO G1-G2 pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms? Results from a multi-institutional Spanish study[J]. Pancreatology, 2019, 19: 367-371. doi:  10.1016/j.pan.2019.01.007
    [116] Dong DH, Zhang XF, Poultsides G, et al. Impact of tumor size and nodal status on recurrence of nonfunctional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors ≤2 cm after curative resection: A multi-institutional study of 392 cases[J]. J Surg Oncol, 2019, 120: 1071-1079. doi:  10.1002/jso.25716
    [117] Zhou B, Duan J, Yan S, et al. Prognostic factors of long-term outcome in surgically resectable pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: A 12-year experience from a single center[J]. Oncol Lett, 2017, 13: 1157-1164. doi:  10.3892/ol.2017.5561
    [118] Sorbye H, Welin S, Langer SW, et al. Predictive and prognostic factors for treatment and survival in 305 patients with advanced gastrointestinal neuroendocrine carcinoma (WHO G3): the NORDIC NEC study[J]. Ann Oncol, 2013, 24: 152-160. doi:  10.1093/annonc/mds276
    [119] Lu Y, Zhao Z, Wang J, et al. Safety and efficacy of combining capecitabine and temozolomide (CAPTEM) to treat advanced neuroendocrine neoplasms: A meta-analysis[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2018, 97: e12784. doi:  10.1097/MD.0000000000012784
    [120] Barrett JR, Rendell V, Pokrzywa C, et al. Adjuvant therapy following resection of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors provides no recurrence or survival benefit[J]. J Surg Oncol, 2020, 121: 1067-1073. doi:  10.1002/jso.25896
    [121] Gao S, Shi X, Ma H, et al. The effect of using long-acting octreotide as adjuvant therapy for patients with grade 2 pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors after radical resection[J]. J Pancreatol, 2020, 3: 167-172. doi:  10.1097/JP9.0000000000000058
    [122] Kvols LK, Moertel CG, O'Connell MJ, et al. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Evaluation of a long-acting somatostatin analogue[J]. N Engl J Med, 1986, 315: 663-666. doi:  10.1056/NEJM198609113151102
    [123] Ruszniewski P, Ish-Shalom S, Wymenga M, et al. Rapid and sustained relief from the symptoms of carcinoid syndrome: results from an open 6-month study of the 28-day prolonged-release formulation of lanreotide[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2004, 80: 244-251. doi:  10.1159/000082875
    [124] Rinke A, Krug S. Neuroendocrine tumours-Medical therapy: Biological[J]. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2016, 30: 79-91. doi:  10.1016/j.beem.2015.09.004
    [125] Caplin ME, Pavel M, Ćwikła JB, et al. Lanreotide in metastatic enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. N Engl J Med, 2014, 371: 224-233. doi:  10.1056/NEJMoa1316158
    [126] Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors: a report from the PROMID Study Group[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2009, 27: 4656-4663. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2009.22.8510
    [127] Oberg K. Interferon in the management of neuroendocrine GEP-tumors: a review[J]. Digestion, 2000, 62 Suppl 1: 92-97. http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/51862
    [128] Pavel ME, Baum U, Hahn EG, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of pegylated IFN-alpha in patients with neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic carcinomas[J]. J Interferon Cytokine Res, 2006, 26: 8-13. doi:  10.1089/jir.2006.26.8
    [129] de Mestier L, Walter T, Brixi H, et al. Comparison of Temozolomide-Capecitabine to 5-Fluorouracile-Dacarbazine in 247 Patients with Advanced Digestive Neuroendocrine Tumors Using Propensity Score Analyses[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2019, 108: 343-353. doi:  10.1159/000498887
    [130] Cives M, Ghayouri M, Morse B, et al. Analysis of potential response predictors to capecitabine/temozolomide in metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Endocr Relat Cancer, 2016, 23: 759-767. doi:  10.1530/ERC-16-0147
    [131] Kouvaraki MA, Ajani JA, Hoff P, et al. Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and streptozocin in the treatment of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2004, 22: 4762-4771. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2004.04.024
    [132] Kunz PL, Catalano PJ, Nimeiri H, et al. A randomized study of temozolomide or temozolomide and capecitabine in patients with advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a trial of the ECOG-ACRIN Cancer Research Group(E2211)[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2018, 36: 4004. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2018.36.15_suppl.4004
    [133] Wang W, Zhang Y, Peng Y, et al. A Ki-67 index to predict treatment response to the capecitabine temozolomide(CAPTEM) regimen in neuroendocrine neoplasms: a retrospective multicenter study[J]. Neuroendocrinology, 2020. doi: 10.1159/000510159[Epub ahead of print].
    [134] Mitry E, Baudin E, Ducreux M, et al. Treatment of poorly differentiated neuroendocrine tumours with etoposide and cisplatin[J]. Br J Cancer, 1999, 81: 1351-1355. doi:  10.1038/sj.bjc.6690325
    [135] Iwasa S, Morizane C, Okusaka T, et al. Cisplatin and etoposide as first-line chemotherapy for poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma of the hepatobiliary tract and pancreas[J]. Jpn J Clin Oncol, 2010, 40: 313-318. doi:  10.1093/jjco/hyp173
    [136] Lu ZH, Li J, Lu M, et al. Feasibility and efficacy of combined cisplatin plus irinotecan chemotherapy for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinomas[J]. Med Oncol, 2013, 30: 664. doi:  10.1007/s12032-013-0664-y
    [137] Nakano K, Takahashi S, Yuasa T, et al. Feasibility and efficacy of combined cisplatin and irinotecan chemotherapy for poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas[J]. Jpn J Clin Oncol, 2012, 42: 697-703. doi:  10.1093/jjco/hys085
    [138] Bajetta E, Catena L, Procopio G, et al. Are capecitabine and oxaliplatin (XELOX) suitable treatments for progressing low-grade and high-grade neuroendocrine tumours?[J]. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol, 2007, 59: 637-642. doi:  10.1007/s00280-006-0306-6
    [139] Hadoux J, Malka D, Planchard D, et al. Post-first-line FOLFOX chemotherapy for grade 3 neuroendocrine carcinoma [J]. Endocr Relat Cancer, 2015, 22: 289-298. doi:  10.1530/ERC-15-0075
    [140] Hentic O, Hammel P, Couvelard A, et al. FOLFIRI regimen: an effective second-line chemotherapy after failure of etoposide-platinum combination in patients with neuroendocrine carcinomas grade 3[J]. Endocr Relat Cancer, 2012, 19: 751-757. doi:  10.1530/ERC-12-0002
    [141] Chan JA, Stuart K, Earle CC, et al. Prospective study of bevacizumab plus temozolomide in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30: 2963-2968. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2011.40.3147
    [142] Yao JC, Shah MH, Ito T, et al. Everolimus for advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364: 514-523. doi:  10.1056/NEJMoa1009290
    [143] Kulke MH, Ruszniewski P, Van Cutsem E, et al. A randomized, open-label, phase 2 study of everolimus in combination with pasireotide LAR or everolimus alone in adv-anced, well-differentiated, progressive pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: COOPERATE-2 trial[J]. Ann Oncol, 2017, 28: 1309-1315. doi:  10.1093/annonc/mdx078
    [144] Panzuto F, Rinzivillo M, Fazio N, et al. Real-world study of everolimus in advanced progressive neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Oncologist, 2014, 19: 966-974. doi:  10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0037
    [145] Raymond E, Dahan L, Raoul JL, et al. Sunitinib malate for the treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364: 501-513. doi:  10.1056/NEJMoa1003825
    [146] Wang Y, Jin K, Tan H, et al. Sunitinib is effective and tolerable in Chinese patients with advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a multicenter retrospective study in China[J]. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol, 2017, 80: 507-516. doi:  10.1007/s00280-017-3367-9
    [147] Xu J, Shen L, Bai C, et al. Surufatinib in advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (SANET-p): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 study[J]. Lancet Oncol, 2020, 21: 1489-1499. doi:  10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30493-9
    [148] Capdevila J, Fazio N, Lopez CL, et al. Final results of the TALENT trial(GETNE1509): a prospective multicohort phase Ⅱ study of lenvatinib in patients(pts) with G1/G2 advanced pancreatic(panNETs) and gastrointestinal(giNETs) neuroendocrine tumors(NETs)[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2019, 37: 4106. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2019.37.15_suppl.4106
    [149] Strosberg J, El-Haddad G, Wolin E, et al. Phase 3 Trial of (177)Lu-Dotatate for Midgut Neuroendocrine Tumors[J]. N Engl J Med, 2017, 376: 125-135. doi:  10.1056/NEJMoa1607427
    [150] Villard L, Romer A, Marincek N, et al. Cohort study of somatostatin-based radiopeptide therapy with [(90)Y-DOTA]-TOC versus[(90)Y-DOTA]-TOC plus [(177)Lu-DOTA]-TOC in neuroendocrine cancers[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30: 1100-1106. doi:  10.1200/JCO.2011.37.2151
    [151] McStay MK, Maudgil D, Williams M, et al. Large-volume liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: hepatic intraarterial 90Y-DOTA-lanreotide as effective palliative therapy[J]. Radiology, 2005, 237: 718-726. doi:  10.1148/radiol.2372041203
    [152] Claringbold PG, Brayshaw PA, Price RA, et al. Phase Ⅱ study of radiopeptide 177Lu-octreotate and capecitabine therapy of progressive disseminated neuroendocrine tumours[J]. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, 2011, 38: 302-311. doi:  10.1007/s00259-010-1631-x
    [153] Kashyap R, Hofman MS, Michael M, et al. Favourable outcomes of (177)Lu-octreotate peptide receptor chemoradionuclide therapy in patients with FDG-avid neuroendocrine tumours[J]. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, 2015, 42: 176-185. doi:  10.1007/s00259-014-2906-4
    [154] Vezzosi D, Bennet A, Rochaix P, et al. Octreotide in insulinoma patients: efficacy on hypoglycemia, relationships with Octreoscan scintigraphy and immunostaining with anti-sst2A and anti-sst5 antibodies[J]. Eur J Endocrinol, 2005, 152: 757-767. doi:  10.1530/eje.1.01901
    [155] Healy ML, Dawson SJ, Murray RM, et al. Severe hypoglycaemia after long-acting octreotide in a patient with an unrecognized malignant insulinoma[J]. Intern Med J, 2007, 37: 406-409. doi:  10.1111/j.1445-5994.2007.01371.x
    [156] Kulke MH, Bergsland EK, Yao JC. Glycemic control in patients with insulinoma treated with everolimus[J]. N Engl J Med, 2009, 360: 195-197. doi:  10.1056/NEJMc0806740656566.7.2.169
    [157] Nieto JM, Pisegna JR. The role of proton pump inhibitors in the treatment of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome[J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2006, 7: 169-175. doi:  10.1517/14656566.7.2.169
    [158] Ito T, Jensen RT. Association of long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy with bone fractures and effects on absorption of calcium, vitamin B12, iron, and magnesium[J]. Curr Gastroenterol Rep, 2010, 12: 448-457. doi:  10.1007/s11894-010-0141-0
    [159] Lamberts SW, van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW, et al. Octreotide[J]. N Engl J Med, 1996, 334: 246-254. doi:  10.1056/NEJM199601253340408
    [160] Delaunoit T, Neczyporenko F, Rubin J, et al. Medical management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Am J Gastroenterol, 2008, 103: 475-483; quiz 484. doi:  10.1111/j.1572-0241.2007.01643.x
    [161] Daniel E, Aylwin S, Mustafa O, et al. Effectiveness of Metyrapone in Treating Cushing's Syndrome: A Retrospective Multicenter Study in 195 Patients[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2015, 100: 4146-4154. doi:  10.1210/jc.2015-2616
    [162] Yuen KC, Williams G, Kushner H, et al. Association between mifepristone dose, efficacy, and tolerability in patients with cushing syndrome[J]. Endocr Pract, 2015, 21: 1087-1092. doi:  10.4158/EP15760.OR
    [163] Wang YH, Lin Y, Xue L, et al. Relationship between clinical characteristics and survival of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms: a single-institution analysis (1995-2012) in South China[J]. BMC Endocr Disord, 2012, 12: 30. doi:  10.1186/1472-6823-12-30
    [164] Farley HA, Pommier RF. Treatment of Neuroendocrine Liver Metastases[J]. Surg Oncol Clin N Am, 2016, 25: 217-225. doi:  10.1016/j.soc.2015.08.010
    [165] Du S, Ni J, Weng L, et al. Aggressive Locoregional Treatment Improves the Outcome of Liver Metastases from Grade 3 Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2015, 94: e1429. doi:  10.1097/MD.0000000000001429
    [166] Kitano M, Davidson GW, Shirley LA, et al. Transarterial Chemoembolization for Metastatic Neuroendocrine Tumors With Massive Hepatic Tumor Burden: Is the Benefit Worth the Risk?[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2016, 23: 4008-4015. doi:  10.1245/s10434-016-5333-x
    [167] Engelman ES, Leon-Ferre R, Naraev BG, et al. Compar-ison of transarterial liver-directed therapies for low-grade metastatic neuroendocrine tumors in a single institution[J]. Pancreas, 2014, 43: 219-225. doi:  10.1097/MPA.0000000000000030
    [168] Vogl TJ, Naguib NN, Zangos S, et al. Liver metastases of neuroendocrine carcinomas: interventional treatment via transarterial embolization, chemoembolization and thermal ablation[J]. Eur J Radiol, 2009, 72: 517-528. doi:  10.1016/j.ejrad.2008.08.008
    [169] Kose E, Kahramangil B, Aydin H, et al. Outcomes of laparoscopic tumor ablation for neuroendocrine liver metastases: a 20-year experience[J]. Surg Endosc, 2020, 34: 249-256. doi:  10.1007/s00464-019-06759-1
    [170] Mohan H, Nicholson P, Winter DC, et al. Radiofre-quency ablation for neuroendocrine liver metastases: a systematic review[J]. J Vasc Interv Radiol, 2015, 26: 935-942. e1. doi:  10.1016/j.jvir.2014.12.009
    [171] Rossi RE, Burroughs AK, Caplin ME. Liver transplanta-tion for unresectable neuroendocrine tumor liver metastases[J]. Ann Surg Oncol, 2014, 21: 2398-2405. doi:  10.1245/s10434-014-3523-y
    [172] Mazzaferro V, Pulvirenti A, Coppa J. Neuroendocrine tumors metastatic to the liver: how to select patients for liver transplantation?[J]. J Hepatol, 2007, 47: 460-466. doi:  10.1016/j.jhep.2007.07.004
    [173] Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975—2016[EB/OL]. https://seer.cancer.gov/archive/csr/1975_2016/.
    [174] Feng T, Lv W, Yuan M, et al. Surgical resection of the primary tumor leads to prolonged survival in metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma[J]. World J Surg Oncol, 2019, 17: 54. doi:  10.1186/s12957-019-1597-5
    [175] Mehrabi A, Fischer L, Hafezi M, et al. A systematic review of localization, surgical treatment options, and outcome of insulinoma[J]. Pancreas, 2014, 43: 675-686. doi:  10.1097/MPA.0000000000000110
  • 加载中

Catalog

    通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
    • 1. 

      沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

    1. 本站搜索
    2. 百度学术搜索
    3. 万方数据库搜索
    4. CNKI搜索

    Tables(6)

    Article Metrics

    Article views (2761) PDF downloads(1189) Cited by()
    Proportional views
    Related

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return